/Drafting/

Defining Drafting
Drafting is essential to the organization and flow of your paper. Drafting includes prewriting, editing, and reviewing. Once your general ideas are down on paper, writing out specific ideas and quotations can make the final writing process much easier. Each step of drafting brings the process a little closer to the final product. Always write down any ideas you have in the drafting process It is much easier to cut stuff out of your paper than scramble to find things to put in. If you collect all your resources, quotes, facts, ideas, and come up with a thesis during the drafting process, your paper will show it. The idea is to attempt to provide yourself with as much information as possible in order to create a more solid and well thought-out piece. Do less worrying and more writing.

Drafting: The Process
For a first draft: Prewriting, reflection, and planning help you with drafting. Try writing in full sentences, try to find the best possible quotations, try mindmapping, or try writing out all of the data you have gathered. Weave these things together, and you may end up with a nice framework for your paper. Don’t worry about being complete in your drafting. Disorganization and choppiness is fine here, you can smooth that out in later drafts.

The second draft: The second draft is all about putting things together. If you have made a thorough first draft, this should be easy. Organize the main points that you plan to make, find supporting evidence for each point, then spend a few sentences explaining what conclusions you are able to draw from the information. Don’t be afraid to show off here. Professors like when you actually believe the things you are writing about. Sometimes it weakens your argument to use softeners like “might” “I think” and “maybe”. You will want to come up with an overall organizational strategy and stick to it. Parallelism is very attractive in a paper. However, there is also no quick and easy format that works for every topic. You may want to organize things chronologically, fact then opinion, or just use topic sentences.

Third and more: The third and any subsequent drafts are really about finesse. These are the drafts that will hook your reader and earn you an “A.” Add in transitions for you ideas, an attention grabbing introduction, and a conclusion that leaves no room for questions. If you are still struggling with an overall flow to your paper, go back to you first draft and start rewriting. Often your main point will change by the time you get to this draft, and that is fine. However, you may need to go back to your first draft when this happens. The elusive “show, don’t tell” line comes into play in this draft. Professors don’t want to be bored, and if they just wanted the facts about something they could use Wikipedia. You need to show the professor that you can think for yourself, and that you know what you're talking about. If you are bored reading the paper, chances are your professor will be too. Add in action verbs, take out passive ones, and use examples. Pretty soon you’ll be ready for a final draft!

Building Common Ground
Ask yourself these questions to build common ground and prevent yourself from alienating readers:
 * Is there anything that is assumed between you and readers? Explain in detail the ideas or positions being displayed in your writing that you once had to be informed on as well. Never assume your audience will completely understand or share your perspective. Also, watch for language implying bias on your part, language that suggests approval or disapproval, and the ways in which you employ we, you, and they.
 * Have you done away with language that could be perceived as sexist? An effective way to avoid problems with gender is to make things plural: say readers instead of reader to avoid needing he/she.
 * Ensure that any references to race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, etc. are necessary and pertinent to the discussion. Remember who your audience is.
 * Are any terms used in reference to groups acceptable and accurate?

Many writers often narrow--or expand--the topic as they write. Overly broad topics can be difficult to manage and can lead to summarizing rather than descriptively explaining. Narrowing your topic down will provide you with a more workable idea to focus on. Asking questions about what you want to know about the topic and what you want your readers to know will help to focus your writing on a manageable level. If you choose to narrow your topic down, first try to picture a larger context into which your thesis fits. Heading towards the end, gradually zoom in on a specific point where it uncovers the core of your thesis. Your thesis has to make a contract with your reader. Make a claim which forecasts the main point(s) of your thesis, then deliver the source which supports the argument. Having a clear recognition of your weak points in your composition can be noted during this stage. You may always add background information, definitions of the terms, review literature, reasons for your assumptions, and counter-arguments to deepen your own argument.

Sometimes you will find that it is easier to write the introduction after you have written the body of your paper. Consider avoiding the introduction until you have a definite sense of what direction you want your paper to take. Many times, if an introduction is written first it can limit the information or collaboration of ideas for the bulk of the paper. No matter what you choose to write first, it is important to stay on track. Emphasize several points that are related to your thesis by adding more information and going deeper into detail. It is important to gather sufficient information to support your thesis. You may be required to provide a reference or in-text citation, or you may find that you do not yet know enough about your topic, and more research is required. Research may be necessary for multiple reasons: to learn more about the topic, to provide examples for your thesis, or to use as support for your thoughts, opinions, and overall statement.

Let It Flow
As you draft, do not stop to edit or look up small pieces of information; there will be time for precision later. Luke Sullivan, author of "Hey Whipple, Squeeze This," suggests that you must, "Write hot and edit cold." In other words, write off the top of your head and allow your thoughts to be spontaneous. You never want to leave a good idea out. But, when it comes to executing the final product, become critical by taking out unnecessary wordiness or ideas that lead away from the main message. Do not leave distractions or misunderstandings in your writing. If you have a question, place it in brackets or make note of it and refer back to it later. First, just get your ideas out without worrying about punctuation or spelling. Similarly, if you notice a big gap which requires more research, skip it and work on other sections. The important thing is to let your ideas keep coming and make progress on the page. No matter how irrelevant your words may appear, keep writing. And if you have to stop, be sure to end in a place where you know it will be easy to pick up from later. Do not discredit your flow of ideas. Do not leave your train of thought high and dry when it is cruising. This will ensure that returning to the draft will be an easy task.

Experiment
How do you start your draft? While the occasional flash of inspiration can lead you to scribble out great work on the back of an envelope with a stubby pencil, paying brief attention not only to 'what you write', but 'how you write' can inspire you to write differently or even more effectively. If you start drafting from the conclusion, for example, it could be like having a "Guiding Star" for your paper. Or you could leave the introduction and conclusion blank until the end. With that said, you can make up your own approach to create your own way of writing. All the technological tools you have access to make it possible for you to write virtually anytime, anywhere, and however you want. Take advantage of it. Type on your computer, do research on it, record your own voice if the pen is slowing down your thinking. Experiment with your approach to writing.

Writer's Block?
Though it’s important to utilize your own creativity for an assignment, writer’s block can and will happen. Collaboration is an easy and effective way around this. Sometimes remembering that no one is perfect, and that it’s better to have a bad start then no start, will also help. Otherwise there are several activities that can help get the creative juices flowing: mind mapping, brainstorming, looking up your topic to see what others have said about it, or even just taking a break can help. Also, if you do not wait until the last minute to start your paper, then you should have a day or two to work through writer’s block.

Meeting the Minimum Word Count
If you are having a hard time meeting the page count requirement for your paper, one easy trick is to replace simple words like "because" and "and" with wordy phrases like "due to the fact that" and "as well as." You can also try adjusting your word processor's settings for gutter length and even the kerning, or the space between letters. Mono-space fonts (i.e., Courier) take up more space than True Type fonts (Times New Roman), and you can always try to get away with a larger font size.

However, none of these tricks are likely to work on an experienced teacher or editor, who may even decide to penalize you for attempting such foolery. Instead, look over your paper again and see if you can find spots that could use additional detail. Is "a blue car" sufficient, or would "a 2007 Vista Blue Ford Mustang" work better? Does the phrase "chaotic classroom" really provide enough sensory details to bring the scene alive, or should you describe the flying erasers and piercing shrieks? If it's a research paper, consider adding another source or two. Likewise, look at the claims you make in the paper and decide whether you've really offered enough evidence to support them. Are there alternatives or counter-arguments you haven't considered? Do you have enough examples? Statistics? Quotations?

Here are some phrases that will help you add extra words to your paper:
 * in other words
 * for example, for instance
 * others have suggested
 * one possible objection is
 * some possible alternatives are
 * a possible exception to this rule is

Block quotations are a good way to take up some extra space, and if you can do this properly professors will be impressed. You can use block quoting if your quote is more than four lines long, and you format it just like a normal quote except you start a new line and indent the whole thing for two tabs. However, remember not to put in too many quotes. A general rule of thumb is to have quotes add up to no more than 15% of your paper.

Also see Generating Ideas in the Drafting section of this book.

Tips on Titles
Coming up with a good title for your essay might seem difficult, but there are several techniques that can help. Although some writers start with a good title and write a paper to fit it, others (and probably most) worry about coming up with a good title after they're finished with the draft. The advantage of waiting until the end to work on the title is that you know exactly what you've written.

Many academic writers prefer a two-part title structure separated by a colon. The "catchy" bit goes before the colon, whereas the latter part is a straightforward description of the paper. For example, "Cutting out the Cut and Paste: Why Schools Should Use Plagiarism Detection Software."

Here are some tips for coming up with good titles:
 * Get inspiration from best-selling books or well-known essays, particularly those closely related to your topic (i.e., "Men are from Mars, Women are from Snickers: Candy Bars and the Obesity Epidemic.")
 * Look through your paper and see if you can identify some "key words" or special phrases that might serve as part of a title (i.e., "Edit this Page: How Wiki's Enable Collaborative Writing", "The Blue Screen of Death: How to Respond to Technical Difficulties During a Presentation.")
 * Consider poetical devices, such as repeating consonant sounds (i.e., "The Cost of Caring").
 * Get inspiration from famous quotations or song lyrics (i.e., "I Shaved My Legs for This?: A Feminist Perspective on Country Music.")

If you can't come up with a good title right away, shut down your word processor and think about other things for awhile. If you just can't come up with anything clever, just remember that a clear and precise title is much better than none at all. A title like "The Use of Skull Imagery in Hamlet" may not sound profound, but at least the reader will know what the paper is about.

Sample Draft
Drafts are not perfect. The following is an example of what a draft might look like. The example contains grammatical and spelling errors, lacks detail, could use some rephrasing, and an overall expansion of ideas. It is a good idea to practice this on other examples. Make some up yourself. The more you correct, re-write, and improve sample material, the easier it will be to spot your own mistakes when it is time to write for yourself.

Final Drafting Hints
Here's a quick summary of the key guidelines in drafting:
 * Consider your audience before you draft. Your audience will dictate the style and tone of your writing.
 * You may need to narrow or expand your topic as you develop your paper.
 * If you are stumped about how to start the introduction, it might be helpful to simply skip it and come back to it later. The bigger picture might become clearer as you approach completion.
 * While drafting, keep all of your research close at hand. This will prevent the need to stop writing to look something up, which could break your concentration.
 * Writing in 30-minute stretches will establish momentum, making your job as a writer much easier.
 * If you come across a small detail that you are unsure about, simply write yourself a note and come back to it later.
 * The first draft will not be perfect. Your priority should be getting your thoughts out on paper (or on-screen). Leave the fine-tuning for later.
 * If you must stop writing, be sure to end in a place where you have a good idea of what comes next. You will be able to pick it up again more easily.