/Researching/

Overview of Research
Research is something most of us have done, and is essential to successfully completing certain assignments. Not all assignments will require research, but for those that do, researching not only provides a way to gain extra knowledge on a topic, it also supports and provides credibility to what is being written.

Using primary and secondary sources, research is done to answer questions about a topic and to locate evidence to back up claims that will be made. The primary use of research, however, is its use as a supplement to your ideas. Finally, research can be looked at in terms of a process. Initially, it is finding out what others have already said, contemplating that material, and then adding contributions to it so that it is now original.

In general, follow these five strategies to be successful in your own research:
 * 1) Determine the role of research in your writing.
 * 2) Consider your audience.
 * 3) Understand how writers use sources.
 * 4) Assess/evaluate sources' credibility.
 * 5) Cite sources properly to avoid plagiarism.

Determine the role of research in your writing
Depending upon the purpose of the assignment, research can be used to accomplish many things.

Whether you are writing to inform, persuade, or critique, research should be used in conjunction with your own ideas to support your thesis and your purpose. In doing this, it is essential to use outside sources that are going to back-up your argument. In many cases, researching will reveal evidence that might relate to the topic, but does not support your side of the argument. Many assignments will ask you to acknowledge the other side of the argument, so be sure to research your topic thoroughly and from many angles.

For some assignments, outside research may not be necessary. Thus, in determining the necessary amount of outside sources needed, first evaluate the topic of the assignment. For example, a paper that is based solely on one’s opinion will likely require much less research than one that covers a highly scientific subject. To be sure, always refer to your instructor for specific instructions.

Consider your audience
Perhaps the most important part of writing is determining the audience. By determining the audience, the writer can focus on the morals, values, and attitudes of the group(s) who will be reading the paper. In terms of affecting the research aspect of a paper, knowing the audience can lead to the gathering of specific facts and documents that will most likely have the largest impression on the intended audience, and at the same time, still support the argument.

When determining the audience, keep the following questions in mind:


 * For what age group am I writing? Is it a younger audience? Senior citizens?
 * What is the education level of my audience? Students? Teacher? Experts? Novices?
 * What are their morals, values, attitudes, and/or beliefs?
 * How much information do they already know?

As you answer these questions, think about what types of research will resonate most strongly with your particular audience. However, always remember that whether writing to argue, persuade, or inform, knowing the audience is crucial to writing an effective paper.

Understand how writers use sources
To better understand the process of researching, it should be recognized that there are sources of information all around us. We commonly use them in situations ranging from a conversation with a friend, to an online discussion. But what differs with academic research, is that this “casual conversation” turns into a discussion with the readers of your paper. Therefore, it may help to think of doing research and using sources of information, as just another way to enhance your conversation with the audience.

Sources are other voices
Even before you learn the rules of citation, recognize that you already know a lot about how to work with sources. It can be helpful here to think of sources as "other voices." Sources are used when you reference an idea that was heard in a conversation. They are used when considering what to buy -- whether the sources are an advertisement, a slogan you can't get out of your head, the fact that a friend recommended a product, or that you've looked up price quotes and shopped around. You become knowledgeable at making decisions by piecing together the information from many sources. Sources are part of our lives; they are all around us and are a part of how we breathe life into the words that express what we think.

In research writing, it is similar in the sense that the same act of interacting with other voices is present, only another layer is added. Since writing is being done, you're also presenting the sources in an organized way, so that your sources are used in a way that supports your point of view. This means that any and all sources that remotely relate to the topic can't be thrown in; instead, pick and choose the best sources for your purposes, and use them strategically -- for effect.

Purposes of sources
Sources are capable of playing a variety of roles in your writing. Sometimes sources are used as examples; sometimes they present evidence. Sources can also be used to present a counter-argument. Other times, they are used only to be built upon and refined. Nevertheless, it should be realized that sources can serve multiple purposes in a paper.

This is nothing new. To relate this to an everyday situation, try this: Spend a week paying attention to the conversations and discussions you have. Listen for sources used and try to discern the what reasons they were used. You'll often hear people cite the news, or even refer to a game when talking about sports. You'll hear friends quote conversations they've had with other friends. You will hear people discussing important issues with the participants in that discussion providing reasons (evidence) --facts and opinions, but often a mix of the two-- for why they feel the way they do.

In writing, the natural act of conversing with, and referring to others, is taken one step further. Knowing in advance that you'll be writing for an audience, sources (other voices) will be looked at while exploring an idea and planning how to appeal to those readers, using terms and conventions that they will recognize. However, do not let this part of the research process get in the way of doing what comes naturally. Research is about curiosity and interest. It is about having something to say and finding the evidence to support it. That is the basis of research and working with sources. Thus, the technicalities and rules of research, while important, should not discourage you from doing research and effectively using sources.

Evaluating Sources
The ability to evaluate sources is a very valuable skill when researching a topic. There a two types of sources, primary and secondary. Primary sources are sources that were composed in the time frame that is being researched. Examples include letters, diaries, legislative bills, laboratory studies, field research reports and eyewitness accounts. Secondary sources are commentaries about primary sources, such as encyclopedias. While a primary source may not necessarily be more reliable than a secondary source, it is a firsthand account of an event.

When reading documents, one must be aware of the author's possible biases. Even the most credible sources may exhibit forms of bias, as most authors' past experiences will come into play. Bias is most likely to occur in controversial topics such as politics or religion, but is still likely to be present whenever an opinion is voiced. The author's beliefs and experiences can thus affect the objectivity of the text. Other cases may be when the author or publisher has ties to a special interest group that may allow him or her to see only one side of the issue. Lastly, make sure to evaluate how fairly the author treats the opposing viewpoints. Complete objectivity is very difficult to attain in writing, but try to find sources that are not incredibly subjective. Nonetheless, the most important thing is simply to be aware of possible biases so that you are not misled.

The internet is a wonderful tool for research, but a researcher must also be aware of the credibility of web sources. Knowing something about the author and/or purpose of the site can help in evaluating if the site will be worth your time. When evaluating a website, look for these items:


 * Authorship If you can't find the author of a site, be cautious.  Try looking for "about this site" or check the homepage.  Research the author of the site to make sure he or she is credible.  Also look for the author's qualifications,  or a link to the author's homepage.  These may provide insight to the writer's expertise and credibility.


 * Sponsorship Check to see if the site is sponsored by a special interest group.  By learning about the affiliated groups, a lot can be learned about the credibility of the author and web site.  Also look at the domain name.  This will tell you if the site is sponsored by an educational (.edu), commercial (.com), nonprofit (.org), military (.mil) or network (.net).


 * Purpose Think about why the site was created.  Is its purpose to inform, persuade, or sell a product to the reader?  For whom was the site created?  Who is the intended audience?  If you are not included in the intended audience, carefully consider whether or not the information is relevant to your research.

When setting out to write a research paper, there is a vast pool of information available, including books, newspapers, periodicals, reference works, and government documents. Included in this can be your own empirical data, obtained in interviews and surveys. But is it all worth using? Probably not. As important as is in being able to find sources specific to your topic, it is equally vital to be able to correctly assess its credibility -- that is, how trustworthy, accurate, and verifiable the sources are. Due to the vast amount of information available on the internet, it presents an especially interesting challenge in determining the credibility of sources. But even when evaluating print sources, the same skepticism should be maintained.

Evaluating sources becomes a major component of researching because the materials chosen will reflect upon your reputation. Aside from being able to find informative sources, a good researcher is also able to quickly assess the credibility of information. And through practice, this will come.

Here are four approaches to assessing the credibility of the sources you find.

Evaluate print sources
Just because it's in print doesn't automatically make it a reliable source. When evaluating print sources ask yourself these questions:

Book
 * How old is it? Research projects will have different requirements as to how old your sources can be. For example, when dealing with contemporary issues or a current controversy, using outdated sources will likely provide inaccurate information. So a book on euthanasia published in 1978 probably isn't the best choice. While the book may contain useful information for other projects, it does not make sense to use it when there are more current materials available.
 * Who is the publisher? Books published by a university press undergo significant editing and review to increase their validity and accuracy. When assessing a book published by a commercial publisher, be aware of vanity presses (companies that authors pay to publish their works, rather than vice versa). Also be cautious about using books labeled as "self-published" or books that are published by specific organizations (such as a corporation or a nonprofit group).
 * Is the author objective? Check biographical information included in the book, as well as other sources, to gather information about the author's background as a way of determining his or her stance on a particular issue. In addition, find out about his or her previous works, past professional experience, affiliations with groups or movements, current employment, and degrees or other credentials.

Periodical
 * Is it a scholarly journal or a magazine? Scholarly journals are almost always characterized by no advertisements, longer articles, and the requirement that authors cite the sources they use in writing their articles. Articles submitted to scholarly journals undergo substantial scrutiny by other professionals as a way to increase the clarity and accuracy of the information contained in them. Most scholarly journals are not sold on newsstands, but rather are circulated primarily among the academic community. In contrast, magazines are available all over for purchase; they contain shorter articles (usually), generally don't require writers to cite their sources, and contain advertising. Therefore, while magazines may contain relevant information, skepticism should always be maintained.
 * How old is it? As noted above, dated material can sometimes be inaccurate. Always ask your instructor if you're uncertain about how old is too old.
 * Newspaper article: What do you know about the paper it's published in? Most newspapers have a discernible political slant, which can often be found by skimming through the headlines, or by seeing how others regard the particular newspaper. For example, The Los Angeles Times is considered a more progressive news source, while its neighbor The Orange County Register is considered to have a libertarian slant.

Evaluate sources on the World Wide Web
For most academic research, teachers will require that students use scholarly sources. For this there are a number of “academic databases” that will always provide credible sources. These sites generally require some form of a subscription in order to access them; however, many colleges provide complimentary access to students. Once logged into the site, users are able to search and sort the articles, by criterion such as date, subject, author, and more importantly, whether or not they have been peer reviewed and are scholarly. Examples of these sites include, but are not limited to: EBSCO, JSTOR, and Proquest. Links to these “gated websites” can generally be found on the school’s web page. Nevertheless, always ask what databases are available to you as a student.

While the rest of the internet has a wide range of easily accessible and useful information, discretion must be maintained. Because anyone can put information on the Web, make it your first priority to know who's behind the sites you find. Individuals? Nonprofit groups? Corporations? Academics? Advocacy groups? Federal, state, or local government? Small businesses or single vendors? Depending on your topic, you may want to avoid dot-com web sites: for many, their primary purpose is commerce, and that can significantly affect what they publish. Of course, some websites can have agendas. This can lead to false or misleading information. It is, therefore, best to consult a number of sources so that those with agendas will stand out.

After you've checked out and approved who's behind the web site, check that the information contained in it is:
 * Relevant. Decide whether the information is something that can actually be used in the paper or, at the very least, gives a helpful background. If what is found can not be used, move on to something else.
 * Accurate. Can the definitions, figures, dates, and other facts presented on the web site be verified in other sources? If there appears to be more than one or two errors, move on.
 * Relatively unbiased. As noted above, carefully examining the source behind the web site can lead to clues as to what kind of bias and agenda the site may contain. Once the source has been deemed valid, continue to remain alert: Look for an unbiased presentation of perspectives when dealing with controversial issues. Take note of the language used, and avoid sites that seem to exhibit characteristics of bias and/or inaccurate information.
 * Comprehensive. A valuable web site will cover a topic in-depth and lead to additional sources.
 * Current. When was the site last updated? Credible web sites will garner ongoing attention by their creators to make sure that the content is as up-to-date as possible.
 * Clear. The web site should be arranged so that it is easy to follow. This means the information it presents should be clear, precise, and easy to understand. Avoid using sites that make use of overly scientific and/or technological terms that are difficult to understand. If it can't be clearly understood, it may lead to misinterpretation and thus, incorrect information in your work.

Consider your project
How you evaluate a source will differ depending on the project you're working on. When determining if a source is credible, biased, or relevant, it is equally important to consider how the source will be used.

For example, Phillip Morris has a Web site which touts the company's programs to curb smoking among young people. Now obviously, coming from a tobacco company and cigarette marketing giant, so the source is biased. But is their program effective? Can the content on the site be trusted? In what context?

Should you never use that source? What if you were writing a paper that examined the smoking rates of 10 - 13 year olds? What role might the Phillip Morris site play in your paper? Does the site display information that contradicts their advertising campaigns? Would the campaign web site be effective in your argument? It all depends on what side of the argument that is going to be supported in your research project. Audience. Purpose. Argument. These intents should be determined before the writing is started as they will all effect how sources should be evaluated

Consult ADAM
When faced with assessing a large number of sources in a short period of time, the quickest way to cover the essential points is to remember this acronym:

Age: How old is this source? For almost every topic, search for the most current sources that can be found.

Depth: Does the source go in-depth, or does it just skim over the surface? Does it feature the many details and long discussions that are expected from academic sources? Or does it just seem to cover the main ideas? Always use substantive sources.

Author: Who is the author? What is known about their qualifications? Are they really an expert? Can any biases be seen? What is their purpose?

Money: Follow the money. Is the source coming from a place that's trying to “sell” something? Is there a lot of advertising where this source appears that might affect what gets printed?

Finding Scholarly Sources
When it comes to evaluating the sources that you have found for your research paper, it is very important to acknowledge whether or not the source could be considered a "scholarly" one. Who the author of the source is will always be an important question, as your view of the quality of the article may change depending upon whether it was written by Martin Luther King Jr. or the Klu Klux Klan. In addition to this, you must ask yourself whether you source is scholarly.

A scholarly source would be one that has been written by a professional in the field; the person may hold a doctoral degree, or have a great amount of notoriety in the field you are studying. Often times an authors credentials will be listed as a footnote within the source, but if not, an internet search may reveal whether they can be determined a scholarly author, or one that has done a vast amount of research on the topic in question.

No matter the field with which you are working, they are almost sure to be a number of academic journals or publications that deal in publishing scholarly articles related to the field. By discovering and accessing these journals, you can be sure that the piece from which you are quoting is a scholarly source. Many university pay fees in order to provide their students with access to these journals in their electronic form, though an even greater number of university libraries will shelve current and back issues of these journals.

Furthermore, conducting an internet search of these journals and articles may prove fruitful. Search engines like Google offer the option of searching "Google Scholar" in order to access these scholarly articles only. Finding these sources online, depending on the journal and the site, may require that you pay an outstanding fee to view the article. This is where university libraries come in handy as they offer free access to the same materials. If you cannot access a university library, some clever hunting of the internet may still yield what you are looking for at no cost.

Popular scholarly databases include: ...and a large number of other options depending on your field of study.
 * Academic Search Premier
 * Project Muse
 * JSTOR
 * The MLA Bibliography
 * PsychInfo
 * Proquest

Cite sources to avoid plagiarism
After using other sources to gain information for a report or paper, you might decide to use that information in your paper. If the ideas expressed in your paper are not your original thoughts, you must cite where you obtained that information. If you do not cite where you obtained your information, you are plagiarizing. Plagiarizing is an extreme offense. If you are caught plagiarizing in school you usually will receive a failing grade on the assignment if not in the entire course. You could also risk being expelled from school. If you are caught plagiarizing in a workplace, it could likely end up costing you your job. So make sure you cite copied information! The most common forms of citation are direct quotes and paraphrasing. After a direct quote or at the end of a paraphrase, you should cite the author and page number of your source. Information on how to cite sources can be found in The Writer's Handbook: Citations If you are using other sources in your report and are unsure whether or not you need to use citation, it is better to be safe than sorry so cite the information.

The two most common standards for citing are MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American Psychological Association). Each is specific to the field in which the research is done. So if you are doing researching for a psychology class, it is most likely going to be cited in APA format. Likewise, MLA is usually used in the liberal arts and humanities fields. Nonetheless, check with the teacher, group, or organization for which the research is being done to find out their preference.